Question Third, French - English Canada Question, is no other than, under a new form, our old friend the inexorable JENKINS’S - ear question; soul of all these Controversies, and - except Silesia and Friedrich’s Question - the one meaning they have!  Huddled together it had been, at the Peace of Aix - la - Chapelle, and left for closed under “New Spanish Assiento Treaty,” or I know not what: - you thought to close it by Diplomatic putty and varnish in that manner:  and here, by law of Nature, it comes welling up on you anew.  For it springs from the Centre, as we often say, and is the fountain and determining element of very large Sections of Human History, still hidden in the unseen Time.

“Ocean Highway to be free; for the English and others who have business on it?” The English have a real and weighty errand there.  “English to trade and navigate, as the Law of Nature orders, on those Seas; and to ponderate or preponderate there, according to the real amount of weight they and their errand have?  Or, English to have their ears torn off; and imperious French - Spanish Bourbons, grounding on extinct Pope’s - meridians, gloire and other imaginary bases, to take command?” The incalculable Yankee Nations, shall they be in effect YANGKEE ("English” with a difference), or FRANGCEE ("French” with a difference)?  A Question not to be closed by Diplomatic putty, try as you will!

By Treaty of Utrecht (1713), “all Nova Scotia [ACADIE as then called], with Newfoundland and the adjacent Islands,” was ceded to the English, and has ever since been possessed by them accordingly.  Unluckily that Treaty omitted to settle a Line of Boundary to landward, or westward, for their “Nova Scotia;” or generally, a Boundary from north to south between the British Colonies and the French in those parts.

The Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle, eager to conclude itself, stipulated, with great distinctness, that Cape Breton, all its guns and furnishings entire, should be restored at once (France extremely anxious on that point); but for the rest had, being in such haste, flung itself altogether into the principle of status - quo - ante, as the short way for getting through.  The boundary in America was vaguely defined, as “now to be what it had been before the War.”  It had, for many years before the War, been a subject of constant altercation.  ACADIE, for instance, the Nova Scotia of the English since Utrecht time, the French maintained to mean only “the Peninsula”, or Nook included between the Ocean Waters and the Bay of Fundy.  And, more emphatic still, on the “Isthmus” (or narrow space, at northwest, between said Bay and the Ocean or the Gulf of St. Lawrence) they had built “Forts:”  “Stockades,” or I know not what, “on the Missaquish” (Hodie Missiquash), a winding difficult river, northmost of the Bay of Fundy’s rivers, which the French affirm to be the real limit in that quarter.  The sparse French Colonists of the interior, subjects of England, are not to be conciliated by perfect toleration of religion and the like; but have an invincible proclivity to join their Countrymen outside, and wish well to those Stockades on the Missiquash.  It must be owned, too, the French Official People are far from scrupulous or squeamish; show energy of management; and are very skilful with the Indians, who are an important item.  Canada is all French; has its Quebecs, Montreals, a St. Lawrence River occupied at all the good military points, and serving at once as bulwark and highway.

Southward and westward, France, in its exuberant humor, claims for itself The whole Basin of the St. Lawrence, and the whole Basin of the Mississippi as well:  “Have not we Stockades, Castles, at the military points; Fortified Places in Louisiana itself?” Yes; - and how many Ploughed Fields bearing Crop have you?  It is to the good Plougher, not ultimately to the good Cannonier, that those portions of Creation will belong?  The exuberant intention of the French is, after getting back Cape Breton, “To restrict those aspiring English Colonies,” mere Ploughers and Traders, hardly numbering above one million, “to the Space eastward of the Alleghany Mountains,” over which they are beginning to climb, “and southward of that Missiquash, or, at farthest, of the Penobscot and Kennebunk” (rivers hodie in the State of Maine). [La Gallisonniere, Governor of Canada’s despatch, “Quebec, 15th January, 1749” (cited in Bancroft, - History of the United States, - Boston, 1839, et seq.).  “The English Inhabitants are computed at 1,051,000; French (in Canada 45,000, in Louisiana 7,000), in all 52,000:” - History of British Dominions in North America - (London, 1773), .  Bancroft counts the English Colonists in “1754 about 1,200,000.”] That will be a very pretty Parallelogram for them and their ploughs and trade - packs:  we, who are 50,000 odd, expert with the rifle far beyond them, will occupy the rest of the world.  Such is the French exuberant notion:  and, October, 1745, before signature at Aix - la - Chapelle, much more before Delivery of Cape Breton, the Commandant at Detroit (west end of Lake Erie) had received orders, “To oppose peremptorily every English Establishment not only thereabouts, but on the Ohio or its tributaries; by monition first; and then by force, if monition do not serve.”

Establishments of any solidity or regularity the English have not in those parts; beyond the Alleghanies all is desert:  “from the Canada Lakes to the Carolinas, mere hunting - ground of the Six Nations; dotted with here and there an English trading - house, or adventurous Squatter’s farm:” - to whom now the French are to say:  “Home you, instantly; and leave the Desert alone!” The French have distinct Orders from Court, and energetically obey the same; the English have indistinct Orders from Nature, and do not want energy, or mind to obey these:  confusions and collisions are manifold, ubiquitous, continual.  Of which the history would be tiresome to everybody; and need only be indicated here by a mark or two of the main passages.

In 1749, three things had occurred worth mention.  First, Captain Coram, a public - spirited half - pay gentleman in London, originator of the Foundling Hospital there, had turned his attention to the fine capabilities and questionable condition of Nova Scotia, with few inhabitants, and those mostly disaffected; and, by many efforts now forgotten, had got the Government persuaded to despatch (June, 1749) a kind of Half - pay or Military Colony to those parts:  “more than 1,400 persons disbanded officers, soldiers and marines, under Colonel Edward Cornwallis,” Brother of the since famous Lord Cornwallis. [Coxe’s - Pelham, - i.] Who landed, accordingly, on that rough shore; stockaded themselves in, hardily endeavoring and enduring; and next year, built a Town for themselves; Town of Halifax (so named from the then Lord Halifax, President of the Board of Trade); which stands there, in more and more conspicuous manner, at this day.  Thanks to you, Captain Coram; though the ungrateful generations (except dimly in Coram Street, near your Hospital) have lost all memory of you, as their wont is.  Blockheads; never mind them.

The second thing is, an “Ohio Company” has got together in Virginia; Governor there encouraging; Britannic Majesty giving Charter (March, 1749), and what is still easier, “500,000 Acres of Land” in those Ohio regions, since you are minded to colonize there in a fixed manner.  Britannic Majesty thinks the Country “between the Monongahela and the Kanahawy” (southern feeders of Ohio) will do best; but is not particular.  Ohio Company, we shall find, chose at last, as the eligible spot, the topmost fork or very Head of the Ohio, - where Monongahela River from south and Alleghany River from north unite to form “The Ohio;” where stands, in our day, the big sooty Town of Pittsburg and its industries.  Ohio Company was laudably eager on this matter; Land - Surveyor in it (nay, at length, “Colonel of a Regiment of 150 men raised by the Ohio Company”) was Mr. George Washington, whose Family had much promoted the Enterprise; and who was indeed a steady - going, considerate, close - mouthed Young Gentleman; who came to great distinction in the end.

French Governor (La Gallisonniere still the man), getting wind of this Ohio Company still in embryo, anticipates the birth; sends a vigilant Commandant thitherward, “with 300 men, To trace and occupy the Valleys of the Ohio and of the St. Lawrence, as far as Detroit.”  That officer “buries plates of lead,” up and down the Country, with inscriptions signifying that “from the farthest ridge, whence water trickled towards the Ohio, the Country belonged to France; and nails the Bourbon Lilies to the forest - trees; forbidding the Indians all trade with the English; expels the English traders from the towns of the Miamis; and writes to the Governor of Pennsylvania, requesting him to prevent all farther intrusion.”  Vigilant Governors, these French, and well supported from home.  Duquesne, the vigilant successor of La Gallisonniere (who is now wanted at home, for still more important purposes, as will appear), finding “the lead plates” little regarded, sends, by and by, 500 new soldiers from Detroit into those Ohio parts (march of 100 miles or so); - “the French Government having, in this year 1750, shipped no fewer than 8,000 men for their American Garrisons;” - and where the Ohio Company venture on planting a Stockade, tears it tragically out, as will be seen!

The third thing worth notice, in 1749, and still more in the following year and years, had reference to Nova Scotia again.  One La Corne, “a recklessly sanguinary partisan” (military gentleman of the Trenck, indigo - Trenck species), nestles himself (winter, 1749 - 50) on that Missiquash River, head of the Bay of Fundy; in the Village of Chignecto, which is admittedly English ground, though inhabited by French.  La Corne compels, or admits, the Inhabitants to swear allegiance to France again; and to make themselves useful in fortifying, not to say in drilling, - with an eye to military work.  Hearing of which, Colonel Cornwallis and incipient Halifax are much at a loss.  They in vain seek aid from the Governor of Massachusetts ("Assembly to be consulted first, to be convinced; Constitutional rights: - Nothing possible just, at once"); - and can only send a party of 400 men, to try and recover Chignecto at any rate.  April 20th, 1750, the 400 arrive there; order La Corne instantly to go.  Bourbon Flag is waving on his dikes, this side the Missiquash:  high time that he and it were gone.  “Village Priest [flamingly orthodox, as all these Priests are, all picked for the business], with his own hands, sets fire to the Church in Chignecto; “inhabitants burn their houses, and escape across the river, - La Corne as rear - guard.  La Corne, across the Missiquash, declares, That, to a certainty, he is now on French ground; that he will, at all hazards, defend the Territory here; and maintain every inch of it, - “till regular Commissioners [due ever since the Treaty of Aix, had not that Romish - king Business been so pressing] have settled what the Boundary between the two Countries is.” - Chignecto being ashes, and the neighboring population gone, Cornwallis and his Four Hundred had to return to Halifax.

It was not till Autumn following, that Chignecto could be solidly got hold of by the Halifax people; nor till a long time after, that La Corne could be dislodged from his stockades, and sent packing. [ - Gentleman’s Magazine, - x, 295.] September, 1750, a new Expedition on Chignecto found the place populous again, Indians, French “Peasants” (seemingly Soldiers of a sort); who stood very fiercely behind their defences, and needed a determined on - rush, and “volley close into their noses,” before disappearing.  This was reckoned the first military bloodshed (if this were really military on the French side).  And in November following, some small British Cruiser on those Coasts, falling in with a French Brigantine, from Quebec, evidently carrying military stores and solacements for La Corne, seized the same; by force of battle, since not otherwise, - three men lost to the British, five to the French, - and brought it to Halifax.  “Lawful and necessary!” says the Admiralty Court; “Sheer Piracy!” shriek the French; - matters breaking out into actual flashes of flame, in this manner.

British Commissions, two in number, names not worth mention, have, at last, in this Year 1750, gone to Paris; and are holding manifold conferences with French ditto, - to no “purpose, any of them.  One reads the dreary tattle of the Duke of Newcastle upon it, in the Years onward:  “Just going to agree,” the Duke hopes; “some difficulties, but everybody, French and English, wanting mere justice; and our and their Commissioners being in such a generous spirit, surely they will soon settle it.” [His Letters, in Coxe’s - Pelham, - i ("September, 1751"), &c.] They never did or could; and steadily it went on worsening.

That notable private assertion of the French, That Canada and Louisiana mean all America West of the Alleghanies, had not yet oozed out to the English; but it is gradually oozing out, and that England will have to content itself with the moderate Country lying east of that Blue range.  “Not much above a million of you”, say the French; “and surely there is room enough East of the Alleghanies?  We, with our couple of Colonies, are the real America; - counting, it is true, few settlers as yet; but there shall be innumerable; and, in the mean while, there are Army - Detachments, Block - houses, fortified Posts, command of the Rivers, of the Indian Nations, of the water - highways and military keys (to you unintelligible); and we will make it good!”

The exact cipher of the French (guessed to be 50,000), and their precise relative - value as tillers and subduers of the soil, in these Two Colonies of theirs, as against the English Thirteen, would be interesting to know:  curious also their little bill, of trouble taken in creating the Continent of America, in discovering it, visiting, surveying, planting, taming, making habitable for man: - and what Rhadamanthus would have said of those Two Documents!  Enough, the French have taken some trouble, more or less, - especially in sending soldiers out, of late.  The French, to certain thousands, languidly tilling, hunting and adventuring, and very skilful in wheedling the Indian Nations, are actually there; and they, in the silence of Rhadamanthus, decide that merit shall not miss its wages for want of asking.  “Ours is America West of the Alleghanies,” say the French, openly before long.

“Yours?  Yours, of all people’s?” answer the English; and begin, with lethargic effort, to awake a little to that stupid Foreign Question; important, though stupid and foreign, or lying far off.  Who really owned all America, probably few Englishmen had ever asked themselves, in their dreamiest humors, nor could they now answer; but, that North America does not belong to the French, can be doubtful to no English creature.  Pitt, Chatham as we now call him, is perhaps the Englishman to whom, of all others, it is least doubtful.  Pitt is in Office at last, - in some subaltern capacity, “Paymaster of the Forces” for some years past, in spite of Majesty’s dislike of the outspoken man; - and has his eyes bent on America; - which is perhaps (little as you would guess it such) the main fact in that confused Controversy just now! -

In 1753 (28th August of that Year), goes message from the Home Government, “Stand on your defence, over there!  Repel by force any Foreign encroachments on British Dominions.” [Holderness, or Robinson our old friend.] And directly on the heel of this, November, 1753, the Virginia Governor, - urged, I can believe, by the Ohio Company, who are lying wind - bound so long, - despatches Mr. George Washington to inquire officially of the French Commandant in those parts, “What he means, then, by invading the British Territories, while a solid Peace subsists?” Mr. George had a long ride up those desert ranges, and down again on the other side; waters all out, ground in a swash with December rains, no help or direction but from wampums and wigwams:  Mr. George got to Ohio Head (two big Rivers, Monongahela from South, Alleghany from North, coalescing to form a double - big Ohio for the Far West); and thought to himself, “What an admirable three - legged place:  might be Chief Post of those regions, - nest - egg of a diligent Ohio Company.!” Mr. George, some way down the Ohio River, found a strongish French Fort, log - barracks, “200 river - boats, with more building,” and a French Commandant, who cannot enter into questions of a diplomatic nature about Peace and War:  “My orders are, To keep this Fort and Territory against all comers; one must do one’s orders, Monsieur:  Adieu!” And the steadfast Washington had to return; without result, - except that of the admirable Three - legged Place for dropping your Nest - egg, in a commanding and defenceful way!

Ohio Company, painfully restrained so long in that operation, took the hint at once.  Despatched, early in 1754, a Party of some Forty or Thirty - three stout fellows, with arms about them, as well as tools, “Go build us, straightway, a Stockade in the place indicated; you are warranted to smite down, by shot or otherwise, any gainsayer!” And furthermore, directly got on foot, and on the road thither, a “regiment of 150 men,” Washington as Colonel to it, For perfecting said Stockade, and maintaining it against all comers.

Washington and his Hundred - and - fifty - wagonage, provender and a piece or two of cannon, all well attended to - vigorously climbed the Mountains; got to the top 27th May, 1754; and there met the Thirty - three in retreat homewards!  Stockade had been torn out, six weeks ago (17th April last); by overwhelming French Force, from the Gentleman who said adieu, and had the river - boats, last Fall.  And, instead of our Stockade, they are now building a regular French Fort, - Fort Duquesne, they call it, in honor of their Governor Duquesne: - against which, Washington and his regiment, what are they?  Washington, strictly surveying, girds himself up for the retreat; descends diligently homewards again, French and Indians rather harassing his rear.  In - trenches himself, 1st July, at what he calls “Fort Necessity,” some way down; and the second day after, 3d July, 1754, is attacked in vigorous military manner.  Defends himself, what he can, through nine hours of heavy rain; has lost thirty, the French only three; - and is obliged to capitulate:  “Free Withdrawal” the terms given.  This is the last I heard of the Ohio Company; not the last of Washington, by any means.  Ohio Company, - its judicious Nest - egg squelched in this manner, nay become a fiery Cockatrice or “Fort Duquesne:” - need not be mentioned farther.

By this time, surely high time now, serious military preparations were on foot; especially in the various Colonies most exposed.  But, as usual, it is a thing of most admired disorder; every Governor his own King or Vice - King, horses are pulling different ways:  small hope there, unless the Home Government (where too I have known the horses a little discrepant, unskilful in harness!) will seriously take it in hand.  The Home Government is taking it in hand; horses willing, if a thought unskilful.  Royal Highness of Cumberland has selected General Braddock, and Two Regiments of the Line (the two that ran away at Prestonpans, - absit omen).  Royal Highness consults, concocts, industriously prepares, completes; modestly certain that here now is the effectual remedy.

About New - year’s day, 1755, Braddock, with his Two Regiments and completed apparatus, got to sea.  Arrived, 20th February, at Williamsburg in Virginia ("at Hampden, near there,” if anybody is particular); found now that this was not the place to arrive at; that he would lose six weeks of marching, by not having landed in Pennsylvania instead.  Found that his Stores had been mispacked at Cork, - that this had happened, and also that; - and, in short, that Chaos had been very considerably prevalent in this Adventure of his; and did still, in all that now lay round it, much prevail.  Poor man:  very brave, they say; but without knowledge, except of field - drill; a heart of iron, but brain mostly of pipe - clay quality.  A man severe and rigorous in regimental points; contemptuous of the Colonial Militias, that gathered to help him; thrice - contemptuous of the Indians, who were a vital point in the Enterprise ahead.  Chaos is very strong, - especially if within oneself as well!  Poor Braddock took the Colonial Militia Regiments, Colonel Washington as Aide - de - Camp; took the Indians and Appendages, Colonial Chaos much presiding:  and after infinite delays and confused hagglings, got on march; - 2,000 regular, and of all sorts say 4,000 strong.

Got on march; sprawled and haggled up the Alleghanies, - such a Commissariat, such a wagon - service, as was seldom seen before.  Poor General and Army, he was like to be starved outright, at one time; had not a certain Mr. Franklin come to him, with charitable oxen, with 500 pounds - worth provisions live and dead, subscribed for at Philadelphia, - Mr Benjamin Franklin, since celebrated over all the world; who did not much admire this iron - tempered General with the pipe - clay brain. [Franklin’s autobiography; - Gentleman’s Magazine, - xx.] Thereupon, however, Braddock took the road again; sprawled and staggered, at the long last, to the top; “at the top of the Alleghanies, 15th June;” - and forward down upon Fort Duquesne, “roads nearly perpendicular in some places,” at the rate of “four miles” and even of “one mile per day.”  Much wood all about, - and the 400 Indians to rear, in a despised and disgusted condition, instead of being vanward keeping their brightest outlook.

July 8th, Braddock crossed the Monongahela without hindrance.  July 9th, was within ten miles of Fort Duquesne; plodding along; marching through a wood, when, - Ambuscade of French and Indians burst out on him, French with defences in front and store of squatted Indians on each flank, - who at once blew him to destruction, him and his Enterprise both.  His men behaved very ill; sensible perhaps that they were not led very well.  Wednesday, 9th July, 1755, about three in the afternoon.  His two regiments gave one volley and no more; utterly terror - struck by the novelty, by the misguidance, as at Prestonpans before; shot, it was whispered, several of their own Officers, who were furiously rallying them with word and sword:  of the sixty Officers, only five were not killed or wounded.  Brave men clad in soldier’s uniform, victims of military Chaos, and miraculous Nescience, in themselves and in others:  can there be a more distressing spectacle?  Imaginary workers are all tragical, in this world; and come to a bad end, sooner or later, they or their representatives here:  but the Imaginary Soldier - he is paid his wages (he and his poor Nation are) on the very nail!

Braddock, refusing to fall back as advised, had five horses shot under him; was himself shot, in the arm, in the breast; was carried off the field in a death - stupor, - forward all that night, next day and next (to Fort Cumberland, seventy miles to rear); - and on the fourth day died.  The Colonial Militias had stood their ground, Colonel Washington now of some use again; - who were ranked well to rearward; and able to receive the ambuscade as an open fight.  Stood striving, for about three hours.  And would have saved the retreat; had there been a retreat, instead of a panic rout, to save.  The poor General - ebbing homewards, he and his Enterprise, hour after hour - roused himself twice only, for a moment, from his death - stupor:  once, the first night, to ejaculate mournfully, “Who would have thought it!” And again once, he was heard to say, days after, in a tone of hope, “Another time we will do better!” which were his last words, “death following in a few minutes.”  Weary, heavy - laden soul; deep Sleep now descending on it, - soft sweet cataracts of Sleep and Rest; suggesting hope, and triumph over sorrow, after all: - “Another time we will do better;” and in few minutes was dead! [Manuscript journal of general Braddock’s expedition in 1755 (British Museum:  King’s Library, 271 e, King’s Ms:  raw - material, this, of the Official Account ( - London Gazette, - August 26th, 1755), where it is faithfully enough abridged.  Will perhaps be printed by some inquiring PITTSBURGHER, one day, after good study on the ground itself?  It was not till 1758 that the bones of the slain were got buried, and the infant Pittsburg (now so busy and smoky) rose from the ashes of Fort Duquesne.]

The Colonial Populations, who had been thinking of Triumphal Arches for Braddock’s return, are struck to the nadir by this news.  French and Indians break over the Mountains, harrying, burning, scalping; the Black Settlers fly inward, with horror and despair:  “And the Home Government, too, can prove a broken reed?  What is to become of us; whose is America to be?” - And in fact, under such guidance from Home Governments and Colonial, there is no saying how the matter might have gone.  To men of good judgment, and watching on the spot, it was, for years coming, an ominous dubiety, - the chances rather for the French, “who understand war, and are all under one head.” [Governor Pownal’s Memorial (of which infra), in Thackeray’s - Life of Chatham. - ] But there happens to be in England a Mr. Pitt, with royal eyes more and more indignantly set on this Business; and in the womb of Time there lie combinations and conjunctures.  If the Heavens have so decreed! -

The English had, before this, despatched their Admiral Boscawen, to watch certain War - ships, which they had heard the French were fitting out for America; and to intercept the same, by capture if not otherwise.  Boscawen is on the outlook, accordingly; descries a French fleet, Coast of Newfoundland, first days of June; loses it again in the fogs of the Gulf - Stream; but has, June 9th (a month before that of Braddock), come up with Two Frigates of it, and, after short broadsiding, made prizes of them.  And now, on this Braddock Disaster, orders went, “To seize and detain all French Ships whatsoever, till satisfaction were had.”  And, before the end of this Year, about “800 French ships (value, say, 700,000 pounds)” were seized accordingly, where seizable on their watery ways.  Which the French ("our own conduct in America being so undeniably proper”) characterized as utter piracy and robbery; - and getting no redress upon it, by demand in that style, had to take it as no better than meaning Open War Declared. [Paris, December 21st, 1755, Minister Rouille’s Remonstrance, with menace “Unless - :”  London, January 13th, 1756, Secretary Fox’s reply, “Well then, no!” Due official “Declaration of War” followed:  on the English part, “17th May, 1756;” “9th June,” on the French part.]